A POLICY is the explicit or implicit standing plan that an organization, system or government uses as a context for making it's decisions.

The plan is the totality of the principles, positions, political platforms, social norms and guidelines that are relevant to the people it serves.

In effect, "policy rules our lives." It includes laws, rules, regulations and guidelines, and reflects the norms and values of our society. This encompasses PUBLIC POLICY, which includes all policy which affects citizens.

SOCIAL POLICY is defined as those activities and principles of society which guide the way society intervenes in and regulates relationships between individuals, groups, communities and social institutions.

Social policy is the result of society's values and customs, and determines the distribution of resources and level of well-being of it's people. It helps guide immediate and future decisions, especially with regards to allocation of resources that are both valuable, and in short supply.

Social policy involves government plans and programs (education, crime prevention, health care, etc.) which are good for the citizens, and help decide who gets what, when they get it, and for how long. There is a necessity to make choices because of limited funds.

Social policy is determined by bureaucracies, who take the laws passed by Congress, and transform them into workable policies that affect the people.

When a group of policies are all aimed at a specific target group (example: Social Security, senior centers, etc., provided for the elderly), these are termed "GENERIC" PUBLIC POLICY.

Taxes collected by the government to fund these programs are often referred to as GENERAL REVENUES.

Social policy does not spring only from new and exciting ideas. It has it's basis in the past; in what career government workers are accustomed to and suggest to newly elected officials. Some believe that this bureaucracy is so powerful that it, not the elected officials, really runs the legislative agenda and therefore, maps out the direction of policies into the future.

Whether you hold to that idea or not, it is important to see the roots of our current policies. It is important that you learn (and are tested on) basic historical information. This list of dates will be spread over three lessons to give you a chance to learn it well.

(Please note that many of our social welfare policies are based on the policies and decisions made in early England)

1349 England: Statute of Labors under King Edward III. Public policy began here. Before this, a poor person could do what-ever he was able to do to provide for himself. This law:

1. Set forth maximum wage for earners;

2. Outlawed alms collected by churches for the poor. The poor were considered worthless, and should get nothing. The poor and jobless could not travel, so there was no hope of going elsewhere to find a job. Those not working were sent to prison.

3. Maximum Age for Full Time Employment: Children were expected to work at age five, the work day being 16 hours per day, seven days a week.

1531 Begging was outlawed in England

1536 Punishment of sturdy vagabonds and beggars. This made a distinction between the disabled and whole-bodied. Towns began providing work for the poor, and apprenticeships for poor children age 5-14. If a person were sick, lame or aged, he was not quite as disdained as the "whole" person was. Poor people went to town officials and the church for help.

1572 First tax (mandatory) for care of poor. Provided poor houses, etc.

1601 Elizabethan Poor Laws. Deemed "worthy poor" were orphaned children, or people sick, lame, or old. "Unworthy poor" were the slothful, drunkards, and all able-bodied over the age of five. Children five years or older were considered to be adults, and were responsible to support their parents. Adults were to support the elderly in their community.

1634 Term "worthy poor" changed somewhat, to include all children to age five (no longer needed to be orphaned).

1700's Almshouses created; obligation for the poor shifted from town to province. America adopted English definitions of "worthy" & "unworthy poor" in making social welfare policy.

1840's America treated mentally ill, epileptics, etc., as "insane"; locked them in asylums, often caging them like animals. Dorothea Dix, teaching Sunday School in an asylum, was appalled by the conditions she saw there. Tried to get legislation requiring humane treatment of the mentally ill.

1854 Dix Legislation. This was the first time the federal government acknowledged some responsibility for welfare of the mentally ill. The legislation passed, but was vetoed by Pres. Franklin Pierce. This veto stood for over 70 years, until passage of the Social Security Act in 1935. States rights vs. federal rights was a big issue at this time.

1861 U.S. Sanitary Commission was set up. Public health funded by private, voluntary contributions.

1870's Charity Organization Societies (COS) organized. Funded by private, voluntary contributions. Akin to United Way now.

1880 Settlement Houses formed in America. Here, wealthy women of the community taught new immigrants the American ways and language; practicing one's own culture was frowned upon.

1889 Jane Addams, revered as "Mother of Social Work," organized Hull House, which became a model of settlement houses.

1900's to World War II Progressive Movement in America - young people were moving from rural to urban areas. A middle class was developing. Prohibition made alcohol illegal. The Salva-tion Army provided aid to alcoholics and "bums," requiring them first to go to church and pray for forgiveness. Welfare policy saw uniformity and efficiency with the belief that the state had a duty to protect the interests of the people and provide for the needy. Major government reforms and improvements, with organized social services being funded.

1909 White House Conference on Children -- focused on destitute families, "boarding out", etc.

1911 National Urban League on Urban Conditions -- Social work was founded here, and the workers received some training.

1912 U.S. Children's Bureau Act established a national agency to collect information on children

1916 Federal Income Tax became mandatory. Child Labor Act.

1921 Maternity and Infancy Act reduced infant mortality rate.

1929 The Great Depression - 522 banks closed; 34% of males out of work. By 1930, 6 million unemployed. Hoover did little to remedy the problem, relying on volunteers to care for needy.

1933 Federal Emergency Relief Administration (FERA) - emergency relief to states and communities. The National Recovery Act provided employment through public work projects.

1935 Social Security - part of Franklin D. Roosevelt's "New Deal" to help spur recovery from the Depression. These programs established the framework for modern social welfare.

By this point the historical shows a change, due to the depression, that greatly alters the nation's viewpoint of "the poor."

1950s Americans as a whole believed that poverty had been eradicated. Few new reforms were proposed; existing ones were threatened. Some social reformers tried to expose the hidden subculture of poverty that still existed in America.

1961 First White House conference on Aging (Pres. Kennedy)

1965 Lyndon B. Johnson's Great Society (War on Poverty) made great strides in giving aid to the needy, many of which were designed to empower poor communities to help themselves.

1968 Great Society loses favor, due partly to cost of Vietnam War

1969 Richard Nixon election. Begins to dismantle Great Society; proposes a guaranteed annual income to poor with certain requirements.

1972 Supplemental Security Income (SSI) for poor.

1974 Child Abuse Prevention and Treatment Act.

1976 More Regressive Tax -  rich & poor pay nearly the same percentage; detrimental to the poor, who have less discretionary income.

1980 Ronald Reagan elected. This administration believed that federal social welfare output should be minimal, then only short-term. This contributed to increasing poverty. Benefits for the needy fell; homelessness grew at an alarming rate.

1984 Diagnostic Related Groups (DRG's) developed under the Reagan administration to check rising costs to Medicare of hospital stays. Results in many patients out "quicker and sicker."

1981 Revision in way unemployment tallied. Only those enrolled at Job Service are counted in unemployment rate. This doesn't provide for counting those without unemployment benefits.

1993 Bill Clinton to the presidency saw great welfare services reform: a 5 year life-time for welfare was instituted. States are allowed to cut that down to 3 years total in a person's lifetime.

Hopefully you have learned the history of Social Welfare in the United States To help you remember it better, re-read the history within the context of OTHER historical events. For an example: the mid 60's saw the beginning of Medicare and LBJ's "Great Society." It was ALSO the greatest economic expansion of all time in any country (we were the wealthiest that we have EVER been at that time!). So launching the programs we did at that time made good sense.

However, now we are in quite different economic circumstances: we are the greatest DEBTOR nation on earth! We also have considerably more people than we thought we would have at this time, especially due to the expanding life expectancy (more people are living to older ages: in fact, the fastest growing segment of the population are those OVER 85 years old!), and relatively few children were born to support the large baby boom generation. The demographic and economic changes paint quite a different picture from what we experienced in the '60's!

Social Insurance has its modern beginnings in 1889 Germany, where Chancellor Otto von Bismarck introduced the first old age insurance program. This laid the foundation for the introduction of various old-age assistance programs throughout Europe by the onset of World War I. In 1920, the United States government followed their lead by instituting the Federal Employees Retirement program. Several states soon followed with assorted plans of their own, so that by 1935, all except two states (Georgia and South Carolina) had programs that provided funding to widows and children.

With the coming of the Great Depression came also the desire by many to have some type of assistance, so Franklin Roosevelt advocated a government assistance program which would cover both unemployed and retired workers. The result of his efforts was the Social Security Act of 1935, which established the basic framework for our social welfare state today.

With Social Insurance, people pay to insure themselves against loss, and do not receive benefits unless they have paid into the fund. Key Social Insurance programs include OASDHI (often referred to as Social Security), Unemployment Insurance, and Worker's Compensation.

In the case of Public Assistance, or Income Maintenance Programs, aid to the needy is financed from taxes and is not based on a previous record of productivity, but is instead based on need, and is therefore means tested. Recipients of Public Assistance are often stigmatized as lazy. Some examples of Public Assistance include AFDC (Aid to Families with Dependent Children); SSI (Supplemental Security Income; and GA (General Assistance)

Some of the major social policies in the United States affecting the welfare of individuals with special needs include:

When: 1935 - Franklin D. Roosevelt's "New Deal"

What Social Insurance (also called transfer income)

Who: Elderly, vocational rehabilitation and unemployment.

Originally covered elderly, survivors, and disabled.

Why: Move elderly out of the workforce; make jobs for younger people.

How: FICA - Federal Income Contributory Act (Originally, 1/2 of 1% of the first $3,000 earned. First benefit paid to Ida Fuller - $22/month)

When: Passed 1972; implemented 1974

What: Income floor for the worthy poor; is means tested

Who: Aged (65+), blind (vision 20/200), disabled of any age

Why: Provide cash assistance

How: General revenues

When: 1965 - Lyndon B. Johnson's "War on Poverty"

What: Health Insurance (When started, 80% received, currently only 41% receive)

Who: Aged (65+), disabled (must be on Social Security for 2 years to qualify), those on kidney dialysis

Why: Provide humane care to the worthy poor

How: Part A (Universal) - payroll taxes, FICA

Part B (Optional) - individual pays part (withheld from Social Security check); general revenues (taxes) pays part

MEDICAID - Title 19 "The tail that wags the (Medicare) dog"

When: 1965

What: Medical Assistance - means test required

Who: Elderly, recipients of AFDC and SSI, low income

Why: Provide humane care to the worthy poor

How: State (25%) and Federal (75%) funds

OLDER AMERICANS ACT - OAA "Cornerstone of aid to the elderly in America"

When: 1965

What: Community services for older Americans

Who: Older Americans (60+)

Why: Services, advocacy, politics

How: General revenues; "contributions" (the law prohibits means testing or charging of fees for services for older Americans, so the elderly are encouraged to "contribute". Many contribute because they want to pay for what they get.)

Provision of aid to the needy

The division of Health and Human Services provides resources for the needy. FEDERAL resources are given to REGIONS (there are ten regions in the United States. Utah is in Region #8, centered in Denver, Colorado). The state receives resources from the region, who in turn passes the resources on to the PSAs (Planning and Service Areas). There are currently 12 PSAs in Utah. These PSAs provide and distribute services and assistance to the people.

In the past decade, America has experienced a tremendous growth in the number of homeless people. Homelessness in America has increased to such an extent that almost two thirds of the cities cited in a 1987 report were compelled to turn people away from emergency shelters due to lack of resources.

There is a misconception among many Americans that homeless people have made the choice to be homeless and wish to be such. This is not always the case. Among the homeless are: retired people on small fixed incomes; runaway teens and school dropouts; drug addicts and alcoholics; disabled and mentally ill people; unemployed; young mothers; and families who lost their housing.

One of the causes of homelessness is increasing difficulty many face in being able to afford housing.

Those who are not homeless still face many obstacles to affordable housing. Many spend a higher percentage of their income on housing than is reasonable. This results in a lack of cash needed for other necessities of life, and may eventually force them into mortgage default and eviction. One out of every five mortgage payers are paying in excess of one third of their monthly income for mortgage payments. Contributing to this problem is the fact that between 1970 and 1980, the median income increased only 104 percent, while median home value rose 300 percent. Many middle-income families have been forced to become two-income households in order to pay the costs of home ownership.

This dilemma faced by middle class America is even more devastating to the poor. These people face a crisis in housing because of long-term unemployment, decreasing income levels, and continued cutbacks in federal aid to the poor.

Four major issues become apparent in the discussion of housing problems faced by the poor:

1. escalation of rents -- in 1983, the Bureau of the Census reported that 55 percent of all renters with incomes below $7,000 a year were spending a whopping 60% or more of their incomes for rent and utilities. Part of the problem with increases in rent is caused by increases in property taxes, which the property owner passes on to the renter.

2. rise in utility rates -- in 1986, the average low-income household receiving energy assistance spent over 15% of its income on utilities, about four times the national average. Between 1972 and 1984, the cost of heating with natural gas increased 500%, while residential electric rates tripled. To add to this problem is the fact that many low income renters live in poorly built or maintained housing, which is not energy efficient. It is estimated that in 1984, natural gas was shut off to over 1.4 million households due to late payments.

3. decreasing availability of moderate and low-priced housing -- caused in part by renovation of old inner cities, rather than creating housing for the poor and needy, this renovation often puts people out of their homes, with no other affordable housing to replace it. As the area gets this "facelift", it also increases the property value in the neighborhood surrounding it, thus effectively pricing the poor out of previously affordable housing. The conversion of apartment buildings into condominiums also threatens the availability of housing for the poor.

4. declining government support for the poor -- there is much less government supported housing (in the form of publicly owned housing or rental subsidies for the poor) than there is need for such. Since only a fixed amount of federal money is earmarked for low-income housing, and since funding levels are low, only a portion of applicants actually receive funding. Also, low-income housing is in short supply. In 1982, the average wait for families on public housing lists was 29 months.

The so called "voluntary sector" consists of private, non-profit organizations which contribute significantly to the provision of social welfare services in America. With the increasing need for social welfare services, and the reluctance on the part of tax payers and politicians to provide resources, the voluntary sector takes on added importance. President Reagan, followed by President Bush, appealed to the charitable feelings of Americans as a method for fulfilling needs of the poor. At the same time, spurred on by a movement of conservatism, Democrats relinquished some of their long-held ideals, such as full employment, national health care, and guaranteed income.

The reliance on volunteerism is a radical departure from the concepts set forth by the New Deal -- that of the strong government role in providing and administering welfare services.

Initially, through an amendment to the Social Security Act, Title XX, the government "purchased" services from the voluntary sector, thereby avoiding the costs and obligations of administering programs. This funding allowed for expansion of programs in the late 1960s and early 1970s. As costs escalated, however, the government found it necessary to put a limitation on spending, with the result that voluntary agencies found it more and more difficult to provide the needed services.

With the decrease in government assistance and funding, there has been a "rediscovery" of the voluntary sector as a provider of welfare services. Although somewhat "invisible," the success of the voluntary sector is attributed to it's integration into society. In 1985, nearly half of all Americans volunteered, and 89% in 1984 made a charitable contribution to some voluntary agency. Nearly half of all charitable income is donated by families with incomes below $25,000. During 1984, volunteers put in enough hours to equal a million paid employees.

The voluntary sector may be the only means of addressing some social needs, such as advocacy for minority groups. Numerous significant changes have come about in our history because of private, voluntary interest. These include abolition of slavery, child labor laws, civil and women's rights, and others. Many of our most important institutions have their beginnings in the voluntary sector: hospitals, schools, religious institutions, welfare agencies, and the arts, to name a few.

Several developments have contributed to the fiscal crisis now faced by the voluntary sector. Non-profit human service agencies now face competition from other non-profit organizations advocating environmental concerns, rifle-bearing rights, etc. Early in the 1980s, these non-profit human service groups also faced a drop in federal funds, with the added burden of lower dollars from workplace contributions. As employees have faced declining discretionary income, they have had to cut back their contributions. To add to this burden is the change in federal tax law which no longer gives contributors a tax break for contributing to voluntary organizations.

In conclusion, as voluntary sector agencies become more dependent on individual contributions, their success will depend on the affluence of the communities which they occupy.